Since the first stone tools created by Paleolithic nomads, innovation has always been a defining factor for humanity; our curiosity and big dreams have been the nail-driving force behind all this constant change. In the span of human history, every single civilization, society, and groups of individuals has had the great honor to introduce new ideas, no matter how large or minuscule it was. But amongst all these people, a select few have risen as the ones who have been able to benefit humanity at a great height. These innovators include the Romans, Chinese, and Muslims.
   
Regarded as one, if not the, most important introducers of new technology and ideas, the Chinese have been at the game for well over a thousand years whose creations are still used to this very day. When a person is asked where printing press was discovered, a typical answer would be in Europe by a man named Johannes Gutenberg. In reality however, the printing press was actually developed almost six centuries before the Renaissance under the then Chinese Tang Dynasty by Chinese monks.  These Chinese monks used a technique known as block printing in which blocks of wood are coated in ink and then laid on a piece of paper, another Chinese invention, and a document, book, or poem was created. Centuries later the age-old idea of manual block printing underwent at the minimum of two changes by a peasant named Bi Sheng (eleventh century) and a Chinese government official known as Wang Chen (fourteenth century).  Sheng’s improvement was turning printing into a movable form, where he was able to create well over a hundred varying characters made out of clay; but due Sheng’s position on China’s social scale, he was not able to spread his idea until many centuries later.  Wang Chen followed up on the work of Bi Sheng by reintroducing the movable printing form and his position as an official in the Chinese government allowed this invention to spread across the nation, eventually into Europe.  Many Chinese classics were also printed using printing including “The Diamond Sutra", "Dream Pool Essays", "Nung Shu", and many Buddhist and Taoist treatises.
   

On top of printing, the invention of gun powder would prove to be arguably one of the most instrumental and world-changing creations ever having being discovered. Over the course of more than a thousand years, this substance would make the act of killing ever simpler as it was now possible to launch projectiles from a distance, rather than having to send in troops to fight hand-to-hand combat. But despite the profound effects it has had on the world gunpowder was a concoction of a failed experiment. Chinese alchemists have spent many years and centuries trying to devise the ability to prolong life and even grant immortality and right around 850 A.D, an unknown individual was able to mix saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur to cause a combustion effect when exposed to a source of fire.  Just a half century later, the Song Dynasty put in place weaponry utilizing gun powder against military aggressors including the infamous Mongol horde; one of these weapons of war is called the “flying fire, or fei huo, which was an arrow that acted like a miniature rocket with a tube of gun powder that was lighted with a fuse.  Other forms of weaponry include hand grenades, flame throwers, biological gas shells, and even land mines. 
   

The Chinese also introduced philosophical concepts that rose during the period known as the Warring States (475 BC-221 BC) and include Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism; all share very differing concepts but have all been a major anchor for Chinese life and culture. Whereas Confucianism focuses on humanistic concepts, including filial piety which is respect for parents and ancestors, Legalism is regarded as a direct opposite based on its gearing towards an authoritarian society with strict adherence to the legal system. Daoism sort of floats in the middle since it focuses on leaving everything how it is; basically the old homage of if it is not broken, then don’t fix it.
   

While the Middle Ages for much of Europe was a time of despair and decline, faced with issues including famine, Viking invasions, and deadly plagues, the Islamic world was experiencing a golden age of scientific prosperity, which was ushered in by the Fatimids who placed heavy emphasis on knowledge and were able to consolidate the knowledge of conquered peoples into their own expanding world. When many people think about school they think and dread the idea of having to take math courses; well it was Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī who is acknowledge with the creation of Algebra.  His book, Khwārizmī’s book “ Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala (“The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing”), in turn would lay the foundations for this mathematical concept and explains how to use equations to solve real-world problems.  Even after death, the book was used in Europe as educational material for over a hundred years.  And continuing with the theme of education, universities first began under the Islam as a way to formalize education throughout the land.  The first of these schools, or also known as madrasas was Al-Karaouine (859 A.D) and is located in modern-day Morroco. At these madrasas students were taught for a certain number of years by professional and educated professors in areas from astronomy, to literature, religion, and history.  Al-Karaouine is also still in use as an educational center to this very day, meaning it has taught students for 1,155 years.

Another major contribution from Islam is the convenience of medicine and hospitals to care for the sick and injured. Built upon the contributions of past civilizations including the Greeks and Romans, Muslim scholars were able to obtain a rich source of inspiration to draw from and revolutionize medical care. Regarded as the father of Islamic medicine, Al-Razi published many books that detailed many medical aspects including the uttermost importance of correspondence between a doctor and the patient through trust and listening and the understanding of illness and likelihood of disease.  Hospitals were also propped up in many places from taxation and donations. These hospitals, while carrying for the needy, also sent out professionals to poorer areas and gave treatment to those who needed it. 

While the Chinese and Muslims changed the world, the Ancient Romans under the eras of the Republic and Empire gave us a great deal of creations and inventions that still influence us. One of the biggest accomplishments the Romans designed is the current model of government which many sovereign nations around the globe utilize, the Republican form of government. While many people assume we live in a Democratic society, which was invented by Ancient Greeks, a Democracy and Republic have a great deal of differences; a Democracy is characterized by the rule of the majority, meaning the minority having no protection against the majority. All laws and decisions passed cannot be appealed. Republics are very different as they are designed to refrain from a tyranny ruled by the majority and gives everybody, including the minority, an equal say and protection under the law; here it is possible to challenge a decision in the form of protests, petitions, and government meetings. Of course the Roman Republican form of government is not like how it is today and there are many differences. The leaders of Roman, known as Consuls, are two individuals who were elected on a yearly basis by the Senate which comprised of the Patricians (aristocracy) and served a permanent government position; the Senate is also regarded as the upper part of Roman legislative system where the lower part, called the People’s Assembly, was made of the rest of the population called Plebeians. These Plebeians had the power to veto any law passed by the Senate to ensure that all people were protected.

From the structure of politics, the Romans also granted us the structure of physical infrastructure with the development of concrete. Everything today uses concrete, including schools, road ways, military bunkers, sporting stadiums, and other things; some of the most well-known Roman structures, including the Pantheon and easy-to-spot aqueducts, all were built utilizing concrete. Roads were also another infrastructure feat introduced by the Romans as it allowed military, merchants, and trade to prosper. Having a way to get from point A to point B meant that people would travel more and thus visit new places and even trade goods between towns and villages. Roads were also used by the military and were able to travel many miles in a single day and gave protection to citizens wanting to move around the nation.

While not everything created by the Islamic, Chinese, and Romans were discussed, a few of the most revolutionary ones were. A few other innovations from these three groups include astronomy, compasses, navigation, flight, newspapers, and windmills In all, these people have created hundreds and even thousands of inventions that people use to this day; we have even over the years taken these inventions and improved upon them so people, past and present alike, would and will have a better experience of life. It is the unwritten culture of allowing our predecessors to experience new things and hope they return the favor to their predecessors.

A grand jury in Staten Island has decided not indict New York City Police Officer Daniel Pantaleo in relation to the death of Eric Garner, a man that Pantaleo was seen on video putting in an apparent choke hold in July, according to city officials and lawyers for Garner's family.

The grand jury's decision means that there will not be criminal charges in the case but NYPD Commissioner Bill Bratton said earlier today that there may be up to three other investigations into the incident that could lead to civil or federal charges.

The grand jury was made up of 23 residents of Staten Island and led by a foreperson. A decision required a majority of the jury -- meaning at least 12 people.

Pantaleo, 29, and his police partner, Justin D'Amico, testified in front of the jury. D'Amico appeared only after being granted immunity from prosecution.

Mr. Pantaleo has faced two prior lawsuits for false arrest, unlawful imprisonment, civil rights violations and other charges. One of those suits was dismissed while the other is still pending.